The invention of the bow, the oldest long-range throwing weapon, completely overturned previously existing ideas about hunting and war. At first glance, this is a very simple weapon in its design. But over the millennia of its history, the bow has been repeatedly improved, going from an ordinary wooden stick with a bowstring to a rather complex device made of various materials.

Emergence and development

The principle of operation of the bow is very simple. A flexible stick bent in an arc tends to straighten. If you tighten its ends with a bowstring, then when straightened, it imparts enough energy to the arrow to make it fly a distance significantly greater than the throwing range of the dart.

According to their design, bows are divided into:

• simple, consisting of a single piece of wood;
• reinforced, in which a solid wooden base is reinforced in certain places with overlays made of plates of wood, horn or bone;
• complex, in which the bow shaft consists of more than one layer of material, and the wooden base is a single piece along the entire length of the bow;
• composite, in which the bow shaft is assembled from several short parts made of various materials, each of which is characterized by special physical properties.

The technology for making reinforced and composite bows appeared in ancient times in the Middle East, where there was always an acute shortage of quality wood. The nomads from the Great Steppe, for their part, began very early to experiment with the use of various materials in the construction of the bow and achieved significant success in this search.

Image of Amazons shooting from Scythian bows

In the era of classical antiquity, the small Σ-shaped double-curved “Scythian” bow became widespread. Images of the “Scythian bow” are presented on dozens, if not hundreds of monuments of artistic art, from Southern Europe and the Middle East to Central Asia, and on all monuments it looks almost the same. Judging by these images, the length of the “Scythian” bow could range on average from 60 to 110 cm, which made it possible to effectively use it both on foot and on horseback. Small in size, the “Scythian” bow was a very powerful weapon. According to an inscription from Olbia, Anaxagoras, the son of Dimagor, shot such a bow at a distance of 521 m.

Further development of production technologies led to the appearance first of the Kushana-Sassanian bow, and then of the Hunnic type - larger and more powerful, parts of which were made from various types of wood, tendons and horn linings. By alternating rigid (horns and handle) and flexible (shoulders) parts of the bow using overlays on a wooden base, the steppe peoples achieved excellent results in archery.

Design

The study of the remains of bows and finds in the workshops where they were made makes it possible to identify the design, material and recreate some of the preliminary operations for their manufacture.

At the first stage, the base of the bow, or kibit, was made from wood, to which the remaining parts were then attached. The wood for the base did not have to be particularly strong, since the elements made from it experienced minimal stress compared to other parts. Typically, maple and birch were used as materials. The wooden base was first soaked in cold water for about two days, then softened by steam for about two hours, given the required shape using wooden patterns, and finally dried for two weeks.

Parts of the wooden base of a compound bow

At the second stage, the ends of the bow were made. To make them as rigid as possible, they were reinforced on both sides with a pair of bone plates. Then the ends of the bow were attached to the base at an angle, the junction was wrapped with leather thread, and the entire structure was left in a warm and dry room for about a year.

At the next stage of production, parts made from horn were glued to the inside of the wooden base of the bow. When drawn, the bow is subjected to loads that differ in different parts of the bow. The outer side of the bow experienced tensile deformation, the inner side experienced compression. Compared to wood, which undergoes shape deformation at only 1 percent of compression, horn contracts 4 percent before deformation occurs. To achieve this result, a force of approximately 13 kg/mm2 should be applied. In addition, the horn quickly restores its original shape after the force acting on it is removed.

The horns of a buffalo, long-horned bull or mountain goat were best suited for making bows. During the processing process, the horn was first cut to the required length. Then, if it was bent, it was steamed and straightened, keeping it in a special wooden form. The surfaces of the contacting materials were treated with a serrated scraper, after which glue was applied to them, and the parts were firmly connected to each other. The resulting element was bent in the required direction and dried in this form for two or more months.

At the last stage of production, the onion is bent forward with its horns and dried in this form for a year

When the bow limbs were completely dry, tendons were attached to their outer side. This material is characterized by increased strength with a tensile force of about 20 kg/mm2. Bows were made using the back tendons of a cow or deer, which were dried and then kneaded.

The tendons were attached to the wooden base using glue, which was made from dried fish bladders. This glue was more moisture-resistant and elastic compared to casein glue, which was boiled from animal skins and bones. Before gluing, the ends of the bow were tied and it was pulled in the opposite direction. The adhesive composition was applied to the base as many times as possible, then the tendons were glued. All this was dried, and the bow was pulled together even more tightly, then another part of the tendon fibers was attached, and so on until the ends of the arms were connected. Ultimately, the weight of the tendons accounted for up to half of the total mass of the bow. When the process was completed, the master pulled the onion into a ring and left it to dry for another year.

Arrow quiver and saadak of a Turkish bow from the 17th–18th centuries

After the glue had completely dried, the bow was covered with strips of boiled birch bark or thin leather to protect it from moisture, and could also be varnished and painted. The entire process of making a bow took the master from one to three years, and individual parts had to be made at a certain time of the year.

The result of these laborious efforts was an unusually flexible and powerful bow. Without the bowstring, it had a reverse curvature, the tendons were very tense. Such a bow resisted tension from the very first millimeters. When the bow was fully drawn, the limbs curved outwards and acted as levers, bringing the string tension to its maximum. When tensioned, the horn worked in compression, and the tendon worked in tension. Both materials tended to return to their original state and enhanced the power of the bow and the energy imparted to the bowstring. In addition, due to its greater flexibility, the compound bow could be pulled very tightly without the risk of breaking it. This further increased the energy of the bow and the initial speed of the arrow.

Quiver with arrows and saadak made in Russia from the 17th century

When compared with a simple one, a compound bow had significantly greater strength and durability, which allowed it to serve its owner for several decades. The fact is that a simple bow is quite short-lived. In a tense state, the tree quickly lost its elasticity and became deformed, so the bowstring was pulled on the bow only immediately before the battle.

A compound bow could be kept under tension for a long time without the risk of losing its properties. On a hike, this made it possible to wear it almost constantly in combat-ready condition, although, of course, during long-term storage the string was removed from such bows. In battle, a drawn bow was usually carried in a saadak - a flat triangular case. Saadak was hung on the left on the same belt on which the quiver of arrows was worn.

A compound bow in an unstrung form, with a taut string and in the position before the shot

Bowstring

When the bow was pulled, the string experienced a huge tensile load, so the technology of its manufacture was as important as the technology of making the bow itself. As a rule, bow strings were made from linen, cotton or silk yarn, as well as from sheep intestines prepared in a special way. The strongest bowstrings consisted of approximately 60 twisted fibers and were up to 3 mm thick.

Archers always carried one or more items in reserve, including special types of bowstrings designed for certain weather conditions. For example, a bowstring made of horsehair was good in frosty weather, but, unlike a bowstring made of leather or tendon, it easily absorbed moisture and stretched. To attach it to a bow, the string was tied at each end with a complex knot, forming a separate loop of strong and tightly twisted tendon. This method of fastening prevented its wear. The ends of the bowstring were inserted into special notches on the bone horns of the bow.

Various techniques for tying a bowstring and how to attach it to the ends of the bow horns

To pull the string of a powerful compound bow, the archer needed to apply a force equivalent to 50–75 kg. This required great muscle strength and constant training. According to eastern treatises on archery, tension could be carried out in one of three ways. Pulling the bow with a “jerk”, the shooter raised his hands up, then lowered them down, simultaneously spreading them to the sides: pulling the bow, aiming at the target and shooting were carried out in one continuous movement. When “holding,” the bow was smoothly drawn, followed by a pause for aiming and a shot. By “cheating” the bow was pulled halfway, then a pause was made and a “jerk” shot followed.

The Mongols pulled the bowstring with their thumb. In this case, the arrow was placed to the right of the bow, which made it possible to avoid injury to the forearm due to careless or inept handling of the weapon. In addition, such a grip did not lead to overexertion of the hand, which is important when pulling a tight, complex bow. To make it easier to pull the bowstring, a bone or horn ring was put on the thumb. The bowstring was released using a small smooth protrusion, the so-called “ring lip.” As a result, the load on the hand was reduced, and the shot itself occurred smoothly and without jerking.

Different types of bowstring grip: 1 – Persian; 2 – European; 3 – Mongolian

In Western Europe and Rus', the bow string was pulled with the index and ring fingers, and the arrow was held between the index and middle fingers. The arrow was located to the left of the bow, so the left forearm was easily injured in case of careless or inept handling of the weapon.

Arrows

Bow arrows could be made of reed, reed, birch, poplar, walnut, and willow. Heavy arrows were made from poplar for close combat, and light arrows were made from willow for shooting at extreme distances. Reed arrows had the longest range, but were also the most fragile and broke quickly. To straighten the wooden blank for the shaft, it was heated over a fire and leveled by hand. The length of the arrow was equal to the distance from the shoulder to the end of the middle finger, or from the armpit to the end of the middle finger, or from the elbow to the other elbow, if the fists rested against each other. The arrow had a plumage of two or four feathers, connected so that it twisted slightly in flight. Feathers from geese, swans, owls and other large birds were used for plumage. Sometimes plumage could be made from thin sheets of parchment.

Arrows and their tips of various types

Arrowheads come in different sizes and shapes. The socketed points were attached to the shaft by means of a metal sleeve, the stem points were inserted into the tip of the shaft by means of a thin spike and secured in place with glue and tendon fibers. The latter significantly prevailed over the others. The arrows were carried in a cylindrical quiver made of wood, birch bark and leather. The quiver could hold about 20 arrows. Steppe nomads, as a rule, carried arrows with the tip up, so that the archer could select the type of arrow he needed by touch. To prevent the feathers of the arrows from becoming wrinkled in the quiver, its lower part was made wider than the upper.

Application

The compound bow was a formidable weapon, capable of striking enemies at great distances. In terms of firing range, it was one third superior to a simple bow, being capable of sending arrows to a distance of 375 meters and even further. However, the effective firing range of the composite bow was 175 meters, and the sighting range was from 50 to 75 meters. At this distance, the arrow pierced the chain mail. A well-trained archer at this distance can hit the center of a target about a meter in diameter.

Indo-Iranian archer, 17th century

At a greater distance, shooting was carried out “in areas” and for “harassing fire,” forcing the enemy to stay at a considerable distance. As the distance increased and shooting “in areas,” the effectiveness of the shelling decreased. When conducting staged experiments, an experienced archer at a distance of 90–270 meters accurately hit a target 45 meters in front and 18 meters in depth, simulating a detachment. At a distance of 300 meters and beyond, the hit percentage dropped by half.

A study of sources shows that when shooting at concentrations of enemy manpower, horse archers fired from a long distance in a volley, sending arrows with great frequency, almost without aiming. The rain of arrows falling from the sky had a strong psychological effect on the enemy and caused significant losses. By maintaining a high rate of fire for some time, they sought to force the enemy to counterattack in a position unfavorable to him, or to retreat.

Turkish archer in a 17th-century miniature

The individual training of archers was very high. Professional archers knew how to shoot while sitting in the saddle, standing on their feet and squatting. They knew how to throw an arrow over the fortress wall and let it fall under raised shields. At a normal pace, the archer should have fired 12 shots per minute, and if necessary, twice as much. It was expected that a well-trained horseman, galloping, should be able to fire five arrows while reducing the distance with the enemy from 30 to 5 meters. To maintain a high rate of fire, he kept the arrows ready in his left hand.

Literature:

• Gorelik M.V. Weapons of the Ancient East (IV millennium BC – IV century BC). M.: Nauka, 1993. – 349 p.
• Litvinsky B. A. Temple of Oxus in Bactria (Southern Tajikistan) in 3 volumes. T. 2: Bactrian weapons in the Ancient Eastern and Greek context. M.: Eastern literature, 2001. – 528 p.
• Medvedev A.F. Hand-held throwing weapons (bow and arrows, crossbow) VIII - XIV centuries. M.: Nauka, 1966. – 180 p.
• Nikonorov V.P., Khudyakov Yu.S. Maodun’s whistling arrows and Attila’s “Mars Sword”: Military affairs of the Asian Xiongnu and European Huns. St. Petersburg, 2004. – 320 p.
• Payne-Gallway R. Book of Crossbows. History of medieval throwing weapons. M., 2007 – 415 p.
• Shokarev Yu. V. History of weapons: Bows and crossbows. – M.: AST, 2006. – 176 p.

When it comes to the art of archery, in general about the culture of this type of weapon, first of all, as a rule, people think of England. Well, of course: here, from childhood, everyone remembers the ballads about Robin Hood (“He was a famous marksman, no one could shoot like him...”), and the “incomparable” archers of the English Middle Ages, glorified in the historical novels of Arthur Conan Doyle.

Meanwhile, both archaeological excavation data and surviving written sources testify: the bows used by the Slavs, as well as the Arabs, Persians, Turks, Tatars and other peoples of the East, were far superior to Western European ones - Scandinavian, English, German and others - both in the level of its technical perfection and combat effectiveness.

For those who doubt, we will give an example. The maximum recorded distance for an aimless (that is, simply at a distance) shot from an English bow was 557 m. The arrow of the Turkish Sultan Murat Ghazi IV, who was fond of archery, once flew to 878.5 m. Accordingly, the ranges of aimed shooting also differed. Some English record holders hit a target at a distance of up to 220 m (for example, King Henry VIII), while for ordinary shooters the maximum striking distance was, according to calculations, 92 m. And in the Arab East, the greatest aimed shooting distance for undistinguished shooters was about 150 m!

1. Foot archer. From a miniature of the Khludov Psalter. 2. Sagittarius on a silver base of a turium horn from the Black Mogila

In other words, many of the results that were record-breaking for the “incomparable” English shooters were close to ordinary for their Eastern and Slavic contemporaries. In Ancient Rus', for example, there was a unique measure of length - “strelishche” or “perestrel”, about 225 m. “When the husband finishes shooting,” it was defined in the 12th century, and they were talking about shooting to kill. “Shoot” also meant “to shoot through, to shoot through.” Apparently, our distant ancestors did not see anything special in “finishing the shot” at a distance that was a record for the British.

And the whole point here is in the design of the bow. In Western Europe, a bow was used, which weapons scientists rightly call “simple.” It was made from one piece of wood of a certain species (elm, yew, ash, hazel), seasoned and processed accordingly. The peoples of the East and Eastern Europe used the so-called compound bow, which will be discussed in detail in subsequent chapters.

In general, onions appeared on the territory of Eastern Europe back in the Mesolithic era (from ten to five thousand years BC), that is, around the same time when the dog was domesticated.

On the rocks near the White Sea, images of archers made in the 3rd millennium BC have been preserved. The images show that their bows are simple, having a characteristic arched shape. Archaeologists have found the remains of such bows, as well as surviving arrows with stone tips. By the way, according to the reviews of scientists who conducted experiments with ancient weapons, arrows with “primitive” stone tips turned out to be very, very dangerous...

The compound bow, as historians have found out, came to Eastern Europe along with the Scythians - in the 1st millennium BC - and immediately became widespread, being appreciated by the warriors and hunters of that time. By the 8th–9th centuries AD, the compound bow was used everywhere throughout the European part of modern Russia. Simple bows, which archaeologists occasionally come across in the layers of that era, were, apparently, intended for alerting on animal paths or served as children's toys: the art of archery required training from a very early age. Small, up to 1 m long, children's bows made of elastic juniper were found by scientists during excavations in Staraya Ladoga, Novgorod, Staraya Russa and other cities.

Compound bow device

If a simple bow with a bowstring on is a smoothly curved arc, then a complex one is more like the letter “M” with smooth bends. It is these bows that can be seen in all, without exception, ancient Russian images that have survived to this day.

The artist’s drawing shows an ancient Russian compound bow, restored by scientists from a large fragment found in Novgorod, in a layer of the first half of the 12th century. As it turned out, this find is similar to earlier ones (8th century), but much better preserved due to the moist clay soil. The Novgorod fragment, found in 1953, represents almost half of a whole bow, one of its lever arms. Having lain in the ground for eight centuries, the bow's shoulder was still capable of spring.

It consisted of two wooden planks, longitudinally glued together. On the inside of the bow (facing the shooter) there was a juniper bar. It was planed unusually smoothly, and where it was adjacent to the outer plank (birch), the ancient master made three narrow longitudinal grooves for filling with glue to make the connection more durable. Indeed, according to scientists, the fish glue that was used to glue the planks together held up perfectly even eight centuries later.

I. Mounted Russian archer. From a miniature of the Manasean Chronicle. 10th century II. Old Russian compound bow: 1. Wooden base of the bow. 2. View of the wooden base of the bow from the inside and the layout of the bone plates on it. 3. Layout of the bone plates on the bow (side view): a – ends with a cutout for the bowstring, b – tendons, c – birch strip, d – juniper strip, e – end plates with a cutout for the bowstring, f – side grip plates, g – lower handle linings on the inside of the bow, h, i – knot, or the junction of the ends, slats and tendons, j – knot, or the junction of the tendons and bone linings of the bow handle. 4. Fastening the joints of the bow parts by wrapping tendon threads over glue and gluing the bow with birch bark. 5. Bow with string after pasting. III. Onion cut: a – birch bark lining, b – tendons, c – birch plank, d – juniper plank

The birch bar that made up the back of the bow (the outer half in relation to the shooter) was somewhat rougher than the juniper bar. Some researchers considered this to be the negligence of the ancient master. But others drew attention to a narrow (about 3–5 cm) strip of birch bark, which completely, in a helical manner, wrapped around the bow from one end to the other. On the inner, juniper plank, the birch bark has remained extremely firmly in place to this day, while from the birch back, for unknown reasons, it “came unstuck.” What's the matter?

Finally, we noticed an imprint of some longitudinal fibers remaining in the adhesive layer both on the birch bark braid and on the back itself. Then we noticed that the shoulder of the bow had a characteristic bend - outward, forward, towards the back. The end was especially bent.

All this suggested to scientists that the ancient bow was also reinforced with tendons. Tendons (deer, elk, bovine) soaked in fish glue were placed along the back of the bow and securely secured with a winding at the handle and ends. The elastic and very strong fish glue used to glue complex bows did not prevent the stretching and contraction of the tendons. It was these tendons that bent the shoulders of the bow in the opposite direction when the string was removed.

Judging by archaeological data, starting from the 14th century, Russian bows began to be strengthened with horn stripes - “valances”. Since the 15th century, steel valances have appeared, sometimes mentioned in epics. However, they did not become widespread in Rus'.

The handle of the Novgorod bow was lined with smooth bone plates. The length of the grip of this handle was about 13 cm, just about the size of an adult man’s hand. In cross-section, the handle had an oval shape and fit very comfortably in the palm.

The arms of the bow were most often of equal length. However, experts point out that the most experienced archers preferred bow proportions in which the midpoint was not in the middle of the handle, but at its upper end - the place where the arrow passes. This ensured complete symmetry of the firing force.

Bone plates were also attached to the ends of the bow, where the bowstring loop was put on. In general, they tried to strengthen those parts of the bow with bone plates (they were called “knots”) where the joints of its main parts were located - the handle, shoulders (aka horns) and ends. After gluing the bone pads onto the wooden base, their ends were again wound with tendon threads soaked in glue.

Compound Bow Ends

The wooden base of the bow in Ancient Rus' was called “kibit”; linguists suggest that this word echoes the Arabic name for a simple bow - “kadib”. An even more similar word - “kabid” - was used by the Arabs to call the middle part of the bow, where the arrow slides after the string is released.

The Russian word “bow” comes from roots that had the meaning “bend” and “arc”. It is related to such words as “bend”, “LUKomorye”, “Lukavstvo”, “Luka” (saddle detail) and others, also associated with the ability to bend.

Onions, consisting of natural organic materials, reacted strongly to changes in air humidity, heat and frost. Medieval Arab instructions brought to us recommendations on the design features of bows intended for use in different climatic conditions: in very hot, very frosty, dry or, conversely, too humid places. Everywhere quite certain proportions were assumed with the combination of wood, glue and tendons. Scientists confidently write that ancient Russian craftsmen were fully aware of this knowledge: their products exactly correspond to the recommendations for areas with a temperate climate. In addition, the above-mentioned strips of pre-boiled birch bark, which were used to cover the onions, were intended to protect them from dampness.

A lot of bows were required; in principle, each person had the necessary skills to make himself a good weapon, but it was better if the bow was made by an experienced craftsman. Such masters were called “archers.” The word “archer” has become established in our literature as a designation for a shooter, but this is incorrect: he was called a “shooter.”

Let us remember how Robin Hood was afraid to get his bow wet while crossing the river. But in Rus', according to the authoritative opinion of experts, they knew how to make “all-weather” bows that could shoot in cold weather, in hot weather, and even in the rain. The chronicle story about the winter battle with the Tatars, which took place in 1444, has been preserved. Because of the terrible frost, the Tatars could not shoot: “... due to the great filth... their bows and arrows were useless.” Our soldiers successfully fired at the enemies.

So, the ancient Russian bow was not “just” a somehow planed and bent stick. Likewise, the string that connected its ends was not “just” rope. The materials from which it was made and the quality of workmanship were subject to no less demands than the bow itself.

It is no coincidence that epics call a tight bow “explosive.” Even in a calm state, not to mention drawing the bow for a shot, significant forces act on the bowstring. Those who are familiar with physics will confirm that they are distributed very unfavorably for the bowstring and constantly strive to break it. It is not without reason that philologists who have studied the origin of the word “string” trace it back to roots meaning “tension”, “tension”. It is clear that the main requirement for the bowstring was strength: its rupture could lead not only to the breakage of the bow, but also to injury to the shooter.

The bowstring should not have changed its properties under the influence of natural conditions: stretch (for example, from dampness), swell, curl, dry out in the heat. All this spoiled the bow and could make shooting ineffective, or even simply impossible. In the history of Western Europe, there are cases when entire battles were lost because the bowstrings became wet. French, German, and English shooters mainly used bowstrings made of hemp fibers (hemp). In wet weather, they were necessarily removed from the bows and put into a “pocket” in a purse. And there was no question of shooting in the rain.

Meanwhile, the bows of Eastern Europe, as we remember, were “all-weather”. The bowstring played a significant role here. Scientists have proven that our ancestors used bowstrings from different materials, choosing those that were best suited for the given climate and expected weather. Thus, bowstrings made of good silk or sinew were perfect for a humid and cool climate - and medieval Arab sources tell us about silk and sinew bowstrings of the Slavs. The Slavs also used bowstrings made from “intestinal string” - specially treated animal intestines. String bowstrings were good for warm and dry weather, but they were afraid of dampness: when wet, they stretched greatly.

Types of knots and loops of the bowstring: 1, 2 – view (side and front) of the loop knot on the silk string of a Russian bow (XVII century); Central Asian (Khorasan) knot, 3 – maritime knot, 4 – protracted, or dead, knot, 5 – end of a silk bowstring with an eye for attaching a leather loop, 6 – the same bowstring with a leather loop, 7, 8 – view (side and top ) at the end of the mentioned bow (XVII century) with a bowstring attached

Bowstrings made of rawhide were also in use. In popular literature they sometimes write “from raw leather”: apparently, the authors are not properly familiar with either the dressing process or the benefits it provided. But such a bowstring, when properly made, was suitable for any climate and was not afraid of any bad weather. The skin of the animal (according to the Arabs, it is best if the animal was a young, skinny camel) was soaked in cold fresh water. Then, from the dorsal part, where the skin is strongest and thickest, strips were cut somewhat wider than the future bowstring. If the skin was taken from the sides, the strips were made much wider. After cutting them, they were hung on nails in a dark room where fresh air did not penetrate. Holes were punched in the hanging ends and wooden sticks were inserted into them: with their help, the strips were carefully pulled out and twisted, while at the same time rubbing them with something rough. This operation was repeated until the strip stopped stretching and twisted to the limit, becoming completely flat and round in cross-section. Such a bowstring was already suitable for use. But in order to prevent it from stretching in cold and damp weather, and, on the contrary, from shrinking in hot and dry weather, it was soaked more than once and kept under strong tension, and then carefully polished with a soft polishing stone. And finally they were impregnated with a mixture of fat and yellow wax: after this, the bowstring was no longer afraid of heat, cold, or dampness. You could shoot a bow even in the rain, and if you were in dire need, you could dip it into a river without much harm.

So much for “raw” leather!

As you know, the string was not tightly put on the bow: during breaks in use it was removed, so as not to needlessly keep the bow taut and not weaken it. For the bowstring, special notches were made at the ends of the bow: in fiction they are sometimes called “notches,” which, of course, is inaccurate - these were smooth, carefully made cuts in the bone lining of the end. During shooting, the bowstring loops moved back and forth in the notches and, of course, gradually frayed. It’s clear that no one wanted to lose an expensive silk or leather bowstring because of a frayed loop. Therefore, in Ancient Rus' and the East, loops were made... removable, that is, not integral with the bowstring. Removable loops, most often made from leather straps, were tied to small eyes at the ends of the bowstring. They didn't tie it anyhow either. There were special knots, because the ends of the strap had to be intertwined in the ears of the bowstring so that the tension of the bow would tightly clamp them, preventing them from slipping. On the preserved strings of ancient Russian bows, scientists have found knots that were considered the best in the Arab East. There these knots were called “Khorasan”, after their geographical name.

The chapter “Combat Use of the Bow” will tell you what power ancient Russian bows had. Here we just note that the warrior or hunter made a fair amount of effort not only when shooting, but also when putting on the bowstring. It was necessary to observe certain precautions: a suddenly unbent powerful bow could easily cripple. Naturally, over many centuries of practice, various techniques for putting on a bowstring have been developed. Here's at least one. Most often, both loops were put on the bow at once: one was inserted directly into the notch, the other was simply put on the bow and moved along it to the limit of its length (usually to the place where the shoulder of the bow connected to the end). Next, the shooter turned the bow back towards him and pulled it by the handle with his left hand, and with his right hand he bent the upper horn away, while simultaneously pushing the upper loop towards the cutout. The left leg held the lower horn of the bow. In order to control a powerful bow, the entire body was required.

An Arabic manual written in the 15th century lists twelve different ways to “tying” a bow. It lists techniques for concealed putting on a bowstring (lying down), techniques that were used during river crossings, methods for a sitting position and in case the bow turned out to be very strong. There was even a way for someone wounded in one arm. At the same time, the author constantly complains that his contemporaries have already lost many of the features of the art inherent in the shooters of past centuries.

The word “quiver,” which we usually use to designate a case for carrying and storing arrows, is Tatar. It first appears in written sources dating back to 1589. In Ancient Rus', a case for arrows was called “tul”. The meaning of this word is “container”, “shelter”. In the modern language, such relatives as “tulya”, “torso” and “tulit” have been preserved (the latter is widely used in the form “to sit down”). All of them are directly related to “container” and “shelter”. The crown of the hat covers the head, the body contains the internal organs, and “sit down” is interpreted by dictionaries as “settle down in a secluded place.”

1. Leather tool (straight and side view). 10th century 2. Leather tulle with a bone ornamental plate. The loops for hanging the tool from the belt and the hook for securing it when riding are clearly visible. 11th century

The ancient Slavic tul most often had a shape close to cylindrical. Its frame was rolled up from one or two layers of dense birch bark and often, although not always, covered with leather. The bottom was made of wood, about a centimeter thick. It was glued or nailed to the base. The length of the body was 60–70 cm: the arrows were laid with the tips down, and with a longer length the plumage would certainly be dented. To protect feathers from bad weather and damage, tulas were equipped with thick covers. In “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” the arrows prepared for battle are colorfully described: “Their bows are tense (that is, bowstrings are on), the bows are open...” The “opened” bow served as a significant sign of readiness for immediate action, as in our days - an unfastened holster.

Iron loops, hooks and leather bindings (IX–X centuries): 1–4 – iron loops, 5–6 – hooks, 7 – fittings on the bottom of the tula, 8 – arrangement of iron loops and fittings on leather (birch bark) tulas

The very shape of the tool was dictated by the concern for the safety of the arrows. Near the bottom it expanded to 12–15 cm in diameter, in the middle of the body its diameter was 8–10 cm, and at the neck the body expanded somewhat again. In such a case, the arrows were held tightly, at the same time, their feathers did not wrinkle, and the tips did not cling when pulled out. Inside the body, from the bottom to the neck, there was a wooden strip: a bone loop was attached to it with straps for hanging. If iron rings were used instead of a bone loop, they were riveted. The tule could be decorated with metal plaques or carved bone overlays. They were riveted, glued or sewn, usually in the upper part of the body.

Leather and wood are poorly preserved in the ground. Therefore, not many whole bodies were found during excavations; scientists came across much more of various fragments, from which, however, one can judge the original form of the object and the subtleties of its use. So, along with some tools, mysterious-at-first-glance hooks were found, attached to the bottoms with straps. Over time, scientists found out that such a hook was a characteristic accessory of a horse shooter. It turns out that it served to secure the belt during fast horse riding.

Such tula, according to archaeologists, were most widespread in the 8th-14th centuries among many peoples of Eastern Europe, including the Slavs. In the 9th-11th centuries, however, another type was used, which differed in shape and material: semicircular in cross-section, made of one leather, with metal fittings and iron loops for hanging. These were more often used by wealthy, privileged warriors - members of squads. The Russians and Hungarians especially loved them.

Starting from the 12th century, flat tules, so beloved by artists writing on “epic” themes, also became somewhat widespread. Decorative bone plates were found in some burials of this time. Their length corresponds to the probable length of the unpreserved body of the tul - about 65 cm, and the width is about 2 cm. Most likely, they once decorated the narrow sides of the flat tul, and perhaps its front part along the edges.

Slavic warriors, on foot and on horseback, always wore the tul on the right side of the belt, on a waist belt or slung over the shoulder. Moreover, (artists almost never remember this) so that the neck of the body with the arrows sticking out of it faces forward. The warrior had to snatch the arrow as quickly as possible, because in battle his life depended on it. And besides, he had with him arrows of various types and purposes. Different arrows were required in order to hit an enemy without armor and dressed in chain mail, in order to knock down a horse under him or cut the string of his bow. How they differed and how they were marked is described in the chapters devoted to arrows.

The ancient Russian marksman's tool held about twenty arrows. It can be assumed that, if necessary, they carried several tools with them.

Artists and authors of historical films, depicting warriors carrying bows, often make their heroes put the bows in a taut state over their shoulders or over their heads. Meanwhile, the Slavs and the countries of the East used a special case for the bow - naluche (“naluch”, “naluchnik”, “nalushnik”). Western Europe did not know the rays at all.

When, in paintings and films, our heroes are still provided with sheaths for bows, they are most often depicted as short, following the model of those preserved in museums among the ceremonial weapons of the 16th-18th centuries. However, scientists write that the bow, intended not for a ceremonial exit, but for serious combat, was only slightly shorter than the “tied” bow, or even equal in length, otherwise it would inevitably fall out. The length of the ancient Russian bow with a bowstring was on average about 1.3 m.

The first written mentions of rays date back to the 15th century, but images made in the 12th century have survived, and archaeologists have no doubt about the existence of rays back in the 9th century, if not earlier. The bows were especially relevant for mounted shooters, who at the same time had to control the horse while shooting. But the “footwalker” could not keep the bow in his hand all the time: in battle he had to exchange it for another weapon (sword, spear, ax and others), besides, the bow was quite heavy, and no one wanted to lose it. This is in battle, but what can we say about a long hike, when the warrior carried a lot of necessary things?

Judging by later samples, the arms were flat, on a wooden base; they were covered with leather or thick, beautiful material. The beam did not need to be as strong as the tula, which protected the shafts and delicate feathers of the arrows. The bow and string are very durable: in addition to ease of transportation, the bow only protected them from dampness, heat and frost.

1. Old Russian leather bow with a wooden frame and the arrangement of bone ornamental plates and loops for hanging on it. Reconstruction. 2. Saadak (XVI century): a – quiver (flat), b – bow

The bow, like the tul, was equipped with a bone or metal loop for hanging. It was located near the center of gravity of the bow - at its handle. They wore the bow in the bow with the back up, on the left side of the belt, also on a waist belt or slung over the shoulder.

From about the 15th century, saadaki (sagadaki) spread in Rus', which were a complete set for a mounted archer: a bow at the head and a quiver with arrows. The word “saadak” entered our language under the influence of Mongol-Tatar terminology. Russian merchants, going abroad, carried with them two or three saadaks - both for protection from robbers and for sale: Russian bows were very much valued. Saadaki were made by special master saadach makers. On the front side there was a pocket for a whip and flail. In addition, a knife and scissors for adjusting and trimming the feathers of arrows, as well as files for widening the ears of arrows and, if necessary, sharpening the tips, were stored in the pockets of the saadak, bow or tula. All this could be very useful, for example, after a battle, when captured arrows were collected and put in order. Files that belonged to the shooters are also found in burials of the 8th-14th centuries.

Safety devices

As will be shown in the chapter “Combat Use of the Bow,” combat and hunting bows of antiquity had very significant power. The blow of the bowstring of such a bow, “clicking” the shooter’s left hand in the turmoil of battle or hunting, could cause serious trouble - tearing clothes, or even the body. Therefore, the shooters tried to cover their left hand with a special safety device - a shield.

The scutes found by archaeologists in Eastern Europe are usually close to oval in shape and approximately the size of a palm. They were made from elk horn or bones of large animals. This affordable material is quite durable and strong, and also makes it possible, without additional effort, to make a shield of a curved, “grooved” shape, which allows it to fit more tightly to the hand without dangling or interfering with shooting.

For some reason people in fiction love to apply the epithet “roughly made” to products of antiquity (at least if it is not Greece, Rome or Egypt). But, as has been noted more than once, a barbarian in the historical sense of the word is not a person devoid of culture: behind him there are also centuries of traditions (spiritual, craft, military). And no matter how brief this review of some aspects of the life of the ancient Slavs is, on its pages we have already been convinced more than once: more than a thousand years ago, our ancestors were not “underdeveloped babies” at all, for whom any rag would have passed for clothes, a stick with a rope for a bow , and the stump is for the statue of God.

Things intended for everyday use have been polished to perfection by centuries of practice: after all, humanity was not born yesterday. And not a thousand years ago. In addition, let’s not forget that many objects that seem to indisputably belong to the “department” of material culture are heavily influenced by spiritual culture... How “roughly made” is that!

1, 2, 3, 4. Safety guards for the left wrist, used for archery. 5, 6. Rings to protect the index finger when pulling the bowstring

The above fully applies to the shooter’s safety shield. At first glance, there is little wisdom - take a suitable piece of tubular bone, cut it out, drill four holes for the ties - and you're done! But in reality, not everything is as simple as it seems.

For example, the curvature of the groove adjacent to the hand very much depends on what specific place on the forearm it is put on. This, in turn, depends on the shooting methods and the tension of the bowstring. Thus, the neighbors of the ancient Slavs - the Volga Bulgars (Bulgars) - tied a shield to the front, upper side of the wrist when shooting. These shields have deep grooves. The Slavs and nomads of the south strengthened the shield on the inside of the wrist of the left hand. Therefore, their grooves are smaller.

Some of the shields found by scientists are devoid of decorations; other skilled bone carvers provided them with geometric (often made with a compass), plant and animal ornaments. The pattern, of course, is smoothed so as not to interfere with shooting.

Here and there on the shields you can see thin oblique strokes: they were left on the hard bone by countless blows of a tight bowstring. These little touches, as well as the wear on the holes intended for the ties, indicate that the shield has been in use for many years.

One day, archaeologists came across a shield that had long ago split into two unequal parts from the blow of a bowstring or for some other reason. The bone plate shows obvious signs of repair: this is evidenced by the holes on both sides of the fracture. Why did the owner start repairing it instead of getting a new one? What did this seemingly unremarkable object mean to him, what kind of memory did it hold?..

Concluding the story about protective devices, let us mention some more that were in use, if not among the Slavs themselves, then among their neighbors.

During archery, especially if the archer is unskilled, the area of ​​the left hand along which the arrow slides, as well as the fingers of the right hand that pull the bowstring, are endangered. In medieval Western Europe, the left hand was protected with a glove equipped with special devices for supporting the arrow. Persians, Arabs, the peoples of Siberia and the Far East, in addition to gloves, used rings made of bone, metal and even stone, which protected the fingers of the right hand. They also used “finger pads” made of leather and other materials.

Were such devices used in Ancient Rus'? So far there is no direct evidence of this - neither archaeological nor documentary. But if the Slavs did not use rings and gloves, it was by no means out of “foolishness.” The hands of a skilled shooter quickly become covered with hard calluses in all the necessary places and, according to experts, can withstand the friction of the arrow and string even when using a very tight bow. In addition, gloves and rings somewhat dull the sense of touch and, at least a little, interfere with shooting. According to medieval Arab authors, shooting without them gave much better results.

Arrow: shaft, fletching, eye

Sometimes our ancestors made arrows for their bows themselves, sometimes they turned to specialists. Such masters - “arrows” - were first mentioned in documents of the 16th century, but, presumably, they appeared much earlier, because the need for arrows was very great, especially during wars - and wars were, unfortunately, frequent.

The arrows of our ancestors were quite a match for powerful, lovingly made bows. Centuries of manufacturing and use have made it possible to develop a whole science about the selection and proportions of the components of the arrow: shaft, tip, fletching and eye (heel). A medieval Arabic treatise preserved this science for us. When scientists measured the ancient Russian arrows they found, it turned out that they corresponded to the best proportions indicated in this treatise.

1-4. Arrow shafts: 1 – first quarter of the 11th century, 2 – first half of the 12th century, 3 – mid-13th century, 4 – end of the 10th or beginning of the 11th century. 5. Bone plow from Kyiv. X–XII centuries. 6. Plow. XIX century. 7. Bone planer. IX–XI centuries. 8. Sandstone block for polishing arrow shafts from the Bereznyaki settlement on the Volga. V–VI centuries

The arrow shaft had to be perfectly straight, strong and not too heavy. Our ancestors used straight-grain wood for arrows: birch, spruce and pine. These species remained preferred in the 16th-17th centuries, when (judging by museum materials) apple trees, cedar, reeds, reeds, and cypress were also used.

Another requirement was that after processing the wood, its surface should become exceptionally smooth, because the slightest “burr” on the shaft, sliding along the shooter’s hand at high speed, could cause serious injury.

They tried to harvest wood for arrows in the fall, when there is less moisture in it. At the same time, preference was given to old trees: their wood is denser, tougher and stronger. The log was cut or sawed (in the chapter “The House Comes Out of the Ground” the use of saws was described back in the 9th century) into logs of the required size - according to the length of the arrows. After several months of drying, they were split into blanks somewhat thicker than future arrows. The shaft was apparently given a round shape and the required diameter - 8-10 mm - with a knife: first planed, then scraped to the required smoothness. There were also special devices. When archaeologists came across pieces of tubular bone with cutouts in the ground, they were not immediately able to establish what it was. Only after some time it became clear that these were so-called “knife planes” for smoothing arrows. In other places, bars made of sandstone stones with semicircular grooves on them were discovered. Some researchers have suggested that the stones were heated in a fire and used to straighten curved workpieces. However, when they tried to reproduce such an operation, the result was not very successful, and the scientists changed their minds: apparently, the rough stone was simply used for polishing.

The length of ancient Russian arrows was usually 75–90 cm, they weighed about 50 g. The tip was fixed on the butt end of the shaft, which in a living tree was facing the root. The plumage was located on the one that was closer to the top. This is due to the fact that the wood at the butt is stronger.

The fletching ensures the stability and accuracy of the arrow's flight. There were from two to six feathers on the arrows. Most ancient Russian arrows had two or three feathers, symmetrically located on the circumference of the shaft. Of course, not all feathers were suitable. They had to be smooth, elastic, straight and not too hard. In Rus' and the East, the feathers of an eagle, vulture, falcon and seabirds were considered the best. These recommendations, of course, were not universal: in each area they used the most suitable ones available - from cuckoos to swan feathers, and from some birds they took tail feathers, from others - from the wing. All the tail blades had to be the same in length, width and even weight, and, moreover, bent in one direction: this twisted the flying arrow (like a rifle bullet), which also contributed to stability in flight. Sometimes, for this purpose, the plumage itself was applied to the shaft in a helical manner.

The extensive experience of medieval shooters led them to the conclusion: a rotating arrow always deviates somewhat in flight in the direction where the bend is directed ("twisted" football passes are also based on this effect). The Arabic instruction advises to aim an arrow, feathered from the left wing of a bird, to the right side of the target, and vice versa. There is no reason to doubt that the ancient Slavic marksmen and archery masters knew about this property and used it.

1. Bone ear. Late Bronze Age from the Volga region. 2, 3. Ears from Russian arrows. XVI–XVII centuries. 4. Arrow eye from Suvar. X–XIII centuries

When depicting ancient shooters, artists very often depict the silhouette of the plumage as quadrangular, with its rear ends almost protruding beyond the eye of the arrow. In fact, the feathers were trimmed, giving them a variety of shapes - from oval to “swallowtail”, while the front part was necessarily made streamlined. The feathers always retreated a few centimeters from the ear, otherwise the feathers would inevitably be crushed on the bowstring, or simply when pulled out of the body. At the same time, it was believed: the closer the plumage is to the bowstring, the more accurate the shooting will be; the further you go, the faster the flight. Judging by the surviving arrows and images of antiquity, in Rus' and the East preference was given to precision in combat.

The heavier the arrow, the longer and wider its feathers became. Scientists know arrows with feathers 2 cm wide and 28 cm long. However, among the ancient Slavs, arrows with feathers 12–15 cm long and 1 cm wide prevailed. This is quite consistent with the report from Arab sources about the arrows of the Persians, whose archery system was considered the most advanced . Experienced shooters often had shorter arrow feathers - 8-10 cm, and for long-distance shooting even less - 6-7 cm.

When making plumage, the fan was torn off from a bird feather along with the surface layer of the shaft. The prepared blade was glued to the shaft with fish glue. For greater strength, the plumage was wound to the shaft with glue using horsehair or thread, which was passed inside the feather. The pitch of such a winding was 5-10 mm, the ends of the blade were reinforced with a strong continuous winding.

Various types of arrow feathers. 17th century

The eye of the arrow, where the bowstring was inserted, also had a very definite size and shape. If it was too deep, it would slow down the flight of the arrow; if it was too shallow, the arrow would not sit firmly enough on the string. The rich experience of our ancestors made it possible to determine the optimal dimensions: depth – 5–8 mm, rarely 12, width – 4–6 mm. These are the arrowheads of the 10th century, and this is how they were five hundred years later.

Sometimes the cutout for the bowstring was machined directly into the arrow shaft, but usually the eyelet was an independent part, usually made of bone. The arrows were not at all intended for one-time use; the wooden eye would inevitably suffer and collapse under the stress of being fired. A bone eye for arrows made of solid wood was a bushing that was attached to a turned shaft using glue. If the arrow was hollow (reed, reed), the eye was inserted inside. In both cases, the end of the shaft was tightly wrapped with horsehair, sinew or thread and covered with a thin film of birch bark - so that the transverse winding would not slow down the arrow in flight and would not scratch the shooter’s hand when fired.

According to legends, the ears of especially expensive arrows were carved from semiprecious stone. The arrows of some epic characters had a precious stone called “tyron” in their ears: this stone supposedly had the ability to glow in the dark, which made it easier to find the arrows. There are various guesses as to what specific stone we are talking about.

Arrow: tip

Everything said above about arrows indicates that at that moment to which official science has long dated the “beginning” of our history (9th century), the Slavic “arrow” masters already had centuries-old traditions and experience - as, indeed, did representatives of other crafts. Arrowheads were also made in full accordance with the technical level and requirements of their time.

For some reason, artists most like to “attach” tips with two pointed spikes pulled back to their characters’ arrows. It is probably assumed that such tips have the most menacing appearance. Meanwhile, in the specialized literature about ancient Slavic bows and arrows one can find (if one wishes) a detailed description of... one hundred and six types of iron and eight types of bone tips that were used by the Slavs at different times. It is written about each of these types, in what centuries and in what areas it was used and for what purpose. What a help for both novelist and illustrator! Why not use it?..

The widest variety of tips is explained, of course, not by the “wild imagination” of our ancestors, but by purely practical needs. A variety of situations arose during a hunt or in battle, so each case had to be matched with a certain type of arrow. And in order to immediately, without hesitation, grab the one you need from the quiver-tula, the arrow shafts near the eye were painted in a certain color.

Naturally, we are not able to talk about all types of tips here. Let us note, however, that in ancient Russian images of archers, much more often than double-thorned or simply sharp tips, you can see... sort of “flyers”. Scientifically, such tips are called “cuts in the form of wide figured slotted spatulas.” “Srezni” – from the word “to cut”; this term covers a large group of tips of various shapes that have a common feature: a wide cutting blade facing forward. They were used to shoot at an unprotected enemy, at his horse or at a large animal during a hunt. The arrows, as will be shown in the next chapter, hit with terrifying force, so that the wide tips caused significant wounds, causing severe bleeding, which could quickly weaken the animal or enemy.

A. Image of a bow on a carved stone of the Demetrius Cathedral (12th century) in Vladimir. Iron and steel arrowheads. 9th century

In the 8th–9th centuries, when armor and chain mail began to become widespread, narrow, faceted armor-piercing tips became particularly “popular.” Their name speaks for itself: they were designed to pierce enemy armor, in which a wide cut would get stuck without causing enough damage to the enemy. They were made from high-quality steel; The ordinary tips used iron of far from the highest grade.

Name of iron tips parts: a – feather, b – sleeve, c – side, d – shoulder, e – petiole, f – neck, g – combat head (for armor-piercing ones), h – edges, i – stop for the shaft, j – tip, l – spike

There was also a direct opposite to armor-piercing tips - the tips were frankly blunt (iron and bone). Scientists even call them “thimble-shaped”, which is quite consistent with their appearance. In Ancient Rus' they were called “tomars” - “arrow tomars”. They also had their own important purpose: they were used to hunt forest birds and especially fur-bearing animals that climb trees. What would the valuable fur of a small animal turn into if it were hit by a cut with a blade width of about 10 cm that is already familiar to us? Not to mention the fact that the hunter would have to climb a tall tree, where an arrow stuck in the tree would get stuck (along with the prey). But the “arrow tomars” were just right here: they didn’t spoil the skin and didn’t stick into the wood...

As for the double-pronged tips, so beloved by artists, the Slavs used them rather as an exception. Tenacious teeth were necessary, in particular, for incendiary arrows, which, having fallen on the fly, say, on a roof, should not have slipped down from it. But the Slavs practically did not use incendiary arrows, and our ancestors apparently did not strive to ensure that a person or animal suffered as much as possible while removing the tip from a wound.

The weight ratios of different parts of ancient Slavic arrows also fully complied with the requirements of the Arab instructions of the 15th century, according to which the weight of the tip should be one seventh of the total weight of the arrow. Accordingly, the average weight of the tips was 8-12 g, but there were also up to 40 g (especially large cuts). Added to the scale, sketches of the tips that can be found in archaeological literature indicate: they were the size of a small knife, and not “the size of a marigold,” as is often seen in bad illustrations...

Returning to the one hundred and six types of tips, we note that scientists also divide them into two groups according to the method of strengthening them on the shaft. “Sleeved” ones are equipped with a small socket-sleeve, which is put on the shaft, and “petioled” ones, on the contrary, are equipped with a rod that is inserted into a hole specially made in the end of the shaft. The tip of the shaft at the tip was strengthened with a winding and a thin film of birch bark was pasted over it so that the transversely located threads would not slow down the arrow. Socketed arrowheads make up a negligible proportion of the total number of finds (less than one percent) and are mostly characteristic of the western regions of Rus'. Apparently, they were borrowed from their western neighbors - Czechs, Germans, Poles. Such tips were also used far to the east - in the Kama region. Petioles were widespread everywhere.

According to Byzantine historians, sometimes the Slavs dipped their arrows in poison...

Combat use of the bow

A curious cliche has taken root in historical films and fiction. When a warrior appears in a work - not a hero, an ordinary woman or a girl forced by force of circumstances to take up arms during an enemy invasion - the authors most often give her a bow. Apparently, it is assumed that a woman cannot wield a sword, spear or ax, but a bow is just right. Like a sniper rifle, which doesn’t require great physical strength to operate—all you need is a good eye and patience.

1. Bow hunting. From the fresco of St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv. XI century. 2. Hunter with a bow. From the image on the Rotagina of Tver Prince Boris Alexandrovich

At the same time, for some reason they forget: in order to hit the enemy, the arrow must be fired at the target not only accurately, but also with appropriate force.

The maximum range of modern sports archery is 90 m - very modest compared to the aimed shooting distances of our ancestors. At the same time, the force required to draw a sports bow is about 20 kg. Just try to tear such a load off the ground: not everyone can easily overcome it. It’s not for nothing that sports commentators keep repeating what a great job shooters do in training. Meanwhile, the ancient bows, which warriors and hunters trusted with their lives, were much more powerful. Their tension force reached 80 kg!..

When experimenters made copies of ancient bows from surviving samples and added several genuine ones to them, it turned out that strong modern men could hardly handle them. They managed to pull some of them with great difficulty, while others didn’t even have to be fired at all. Such a bow is simply beyond the strength of an unprepared person... In particular, one bow “offended” the researchers in this way - an authentic one, Tatar-made, with a leather bowstring. According to the stories of the family that provided the bow, its former owner (who lived in the 19th century) easily shot from it and accurately hit the target...

The penetrating - and lethal - power of an arrow fired from a mighty ancient bow is sometimes difficult for modern people to even imagine, because we are accustomed to considering a bow as a “savage’s weapon.” But here are some facts.

In 1428, an archery competition was held in England. The arrows of the record holders, fired from a distance of about 213 m, pierced an OAK board 5 cm thick. But we remember that the bows of the ancient Slavs were more perfect and more powerful than the English ones. Neither a helmet, nor chain mail, nor solid knightly armor could save him from a direct blow from such an arrow. The armor protected the warrior only from touching hits, from accidental wounds...

Archery

Chronicles and historical evidence have brought to us news of war horses killed outright by one arrow, of a warrior being wounded in the chest by an arrow, and similar episodes. Archaeologists have found skulls - human and horse - with arrowheads remaining inside. At battle sites and in burials one comes across skeletons with vertebrae and even massive pelvic bones, crushed by an arrow...

Imitating the combat use of a bow, modern experimenters tried to shoot at a dummy dressed in chain mail made of the strongest damask steel (for more details on damask steel, see the chapter “The Just Sword”). From a distance of 75 m, the arrow pierced both the chain mail and the mannequin...

In a word - in skillful and strong hands, the bow was a terrible weapon, and not fun.

The shooting instructions also indirectly testify to this. At distances of up to 60 m, they fired from a powerful bow “direct fire”, that is, they aimed exactly at the center of the target, without taking into account the force of gravity and without exceeding the target. And even at a distance of 150 m (remember 90 m for our athletes), the excess taken was very slight - the little finger of the left hand was brought to the top of the target.

When the experimenters went hunting with their bows, a running deer was killed with one arrow from a distance of 75 m. An adult bear was killed on the spot 60 m away.

A man armed with a bow and arrow was not at all so defenseless against a predatory animal or enemy, as we are sometimes assured.

A few words about shooting techniques

Having studied the surviving images and written sources, experts came to the conclusion: the position that our soldiers occupied when shooting was fully consistent with the best “world standards” of those times.

Unless the “shooter” was left-handed, he turned with his left side to the target and held the bow vertically, tilting it slightly to the left. This position was stable and allowed the warrior to cover himself with a shield while shooting. The arrow passed along the thumb, to the right of the bow, and not to the left, as was customary in Western Europe and as, for some unknown reason, our athletes now shoot. The bowstring was pulled to the lobe of the right ear or to the corner of the jaw - to the full length of the arrow; the length of the arrow, in turn, corresponded to precisely this method of tension. The Slavs pulled the bowstring with three fingers - the middle, ring and little fingers. The thumb and forefinger held the arrow, which passed “along the mustache,” which made it possible to take an accurate aim.

If a warrior had to shoot from an unfamiliar bow (for example, a trophy one), first he had to evaluate its strength and his ability to control it. Otherwise, it was easy to ruin the shot or, even worse, get hurt. It was recommended to stretch an unfamiliar bow to such a limit that the shooter could hold the string with two fingers without overexertion and without trembling in his hand.

Crossbowmen and archery. From a miniature of the Radziwill Chronicle. 15th century

When television shows episodes from the life of Central Asian, northern or Siberian peoples, we are often offered to watch archery competitions. This is a bright, colorful spectacle. The participants arrive in national costumes, and it is clear that their bows are not from a sports store... But we, the heirs of the ancient Slavs, who once possessed no less a culture of onions, have nothing of the kind (yet?) in sight. Although the necessary literature is available in libraries, you can ask specialists and get the appropriate materials. Will we really forget about our own and be content with the tales of Robin Hood and the “incomparable” shooters of the foreign Middle Ages?

Crossbow (crossbow)

A crossbow is a small, very tight bow mounted on a wooden stock with a butt and a groove for an arrow - a “crossbow bolt.” It was extremely difficult to manually pull the bowstring of a crossbow for a shot, so it was equipped with a special collar – a “bow-bow” – and a trigger mechanism.

Crossbow. Trigger: 1 – top view, 2 – longitudinal section, 3 – cocked, 4 – after release

The crossbow is sometimes considered a progressive step forward from the bow. In Western Europe, crossbow crossbows really became widespread in the 12th-15th centuries, after the Crusades. In Rus' at that time, the crossbow was also known, but did not receive widespread combat use, since it could not compete with a powerful compound bow either in terms of shooting efficiency or rate of fire. For Western Europe, with its simple bows, the crossbow may have been a step forward.

Scientists write that crossbows in Rus' were more often used not by professional warriors, but by peaceful townspeople forced to defend their homes. They had neither special training nor the physical strength of a real shooter. Professional warriors gave a well-founded preference for the bow. In 1252, in a clash with the troops of Mindaugas of Lithuania, who had German mercenaries with crossbows, our archers not only dispersed the German crossbowmen, but also, according to the chronicle, playfully shot them, chasing them across the field. The superiority of Slavic bows over crossbows was also noted by Western chroniclers of the Middle Ages.

Literature

Anuchin D. N. About the ancient bow and arrows // Proceedings of the V Archaeological Congress in Tiflis. 1881. M., 1887.

Kirpichnikov A. N., Medvedev A. F. Armament // Ancient Rus': City, castle, village. M., 1985.

Litvinsky B. A. Complex bow in ancient Central Asia // Soviet Archeology. 1965. Issue. 4.

Malinova R., Malina Ya. Leap into the past: An experiment reveals the secrets of ancient eras. M., 1988.

Medvedev A.F. Hand-held throwing weapons (bow and arrows, crossbow) VIII–XIV centuries. // Collection of archaeological sources on the history of the USSR. M., 1966.

Tevyashov E. E. On the question of the origin of the Russian onion // Soviet ethnography. 1940. Issue. 4.

After rifles and pistols were invented, shooting bows lost their relevance as military weapons, but still people did not completely abandon them. Moreover, there are more and more fans of archery every day. Nowadays, shooting bows are used in many countries in holiday competitions and public celebrations, and shooting competitions are one of the favorite entertainments. Since it began to be used mostly for peaceful purposes, its shape and design have changed.

Kinds

A shooting bow is a throwing weapon. There are several types of them. They are used in sports competitions, for entertainment and hunting. In addition, in some cases, bows are used as military weapons due to their noiselessness. Depending on where the onion will be used, its variety is selected.

Traditional or historical

Has a great length. Of all the types, it is most similar to its predecessors in appearance and design. Traditional bows were used in Britain during the Middle Ages. This is a classic version of this metal weapon.

Modern historical bows are significantly superior to their predecessors in their parameters. Their length can reach 2.1 meters. An arrow flying from such a bow has a kinetic energy of up to 0.1 kJ.

Nowadays, the historical bow for shooting is most often used in competitions or in reconstructions of ancient events. It is occasionally used during hunting.

There are several sports disciplines for shooting from traditional weapons:

• Target. This is competitive shooting in clubs or among friends according to pre-established rules, such as distance to the target and the number of points scored.
• Flight - shooting at a shot range.
• Clout. Shooting that simulates military operations. To do this, two special square-shaped zones are created, located one inside the other. The smaller one, the inner one, is 6 yards on a side, and the larger one is 12x12 yards in size. In the middle of these zones there is a target and a flag that you need to hit to win.
• Speedclout. Shooting competitions with the above conditions, but there are time restrictions.

Olympic or classic

This is a sporting weapon that has the same design as a traditional shooting bow. Classic instruments are made from high-quality modern materials that are more durable and lighter than natural wood. They allow the use of additional devices, such as a sight, weight stabilizer and others. In the distant past, this type of weapon was used for shooting in the Olympic Games.

A classic bow has a collapsible design and usually consists of a handle, arms, string and additional accessories. Now used in sports and field shooting.

Blocky

These are advanced throwing weapons manufactured using modern technology. It is made in such a way as to increase the range, accuracy and stopping power of the arrow. The power of the weapon in some of the most advanced versions is the same as that of some types of firearms.

Its main feature is that it requires less effort to use than when using traditional or classic weapons. Used for hunting, sports and just entertainment. Some variants of compound bows are used by special forces.

Recursive

This type of bow is very similar in appearance to the traditional one, but is smaller in size and weight, which does not affect its effectiveness. Accordingly, less effort must be applied to tension it. Used in field shooting and hunting.

Design

Depending on the design features, bows are divided into:

• Simple and compound.
• Curved and straight.
• Solid, collapsible and block.

Since bows are now used most often in sports, its design has been changed. The shoulders are bent in the direction opposite to the tension of the bowstring. They have a flat cross-section, and not round or oval, like their predecessors. And weapons are now manufactured using modern technologies.

A simple archery bow consists of a wooden arch with a string at the ends. Such weapons were common in Rome, England, and Africa.

Compound bows have a base made of natural wood, reinforced on the outside with tendons, and on the inside with horn plates. There are bone plates in the middle of the handle. All elements of such a bow are connected using glue. Such weapons were used in Ancient Rus' and in eastern countries.

Purpose

A shooting bow should be selected depending on the application. According to their purpose, weapons are divided into several types.

Entertainment

This weapon is used in historical reconstructions, in competitions held during holidays, and simply for antique lovers who want to feel like an ancient warrior.

A recreational shooting bow should be safe, compact, attractive in appearance and comfortable. It is used by both men and women. Traditional, recurve, or compound bows are used as recreational weapons.

When purchasing a recreational bow, remember that recurve bows require less effort to draw than traditional or compound bows. If quite serious competitions are being held, then the best option would be classic compound bows.

Sports

Olympic bows are most often used as this type of weapon. These are classic compound tools that place increased demands on strength and power. Such weapons may have additional functions that increase firing range and accuracy.

Compound bows are sometimes used in sports, but they differ significantly from recreational weapons in both design and appearance. In sports, the most important thing is the accuracy of the shot, not the power. A sports bow for shooting is selected in accordance with the physical characteristics of the archer and his level of training.

Hunting

This weapon is selected according to completely different parameters than the two described above. The safety of such weapons is not important. A hunting bow should be light and compact, and therefore additional accessories are rarely used in such designs. This weapon is used only by the hunter personally and is not intended for mass use by several people. A hunting bow is selected in accordance with the object of hunting. These weapons are made from modern high-tech materials, more advanced and durable than natural ones.

How to choose a bow for shooting

To make the right choice, you should first of all decide on the purpose of the weapon and its price category. If there is an archery club in your locality, then it is better to go there and try shooting with different bows to make it easier to make a choice.

Beginning archers should still opt for Olympic weapons, as they are best suited for training. Classic bows can be upgraded and customized. In addition, they can be disassembled and stored in a compact form.

Traditional bows are not recommended for beginner archers due to the fact that they have significantly lower accuracy and are more difficult to shoot. They cannot be disassembled, and therefore it is quite difficult to store them. Compound bows are not suitable for beginners due to their high cost. And shooting from them requires certain classical shooting skills.

When choosing a bow, you should pay attention to such characteristics as:

• Reliability.
• Number and ease of settings.
• Price.

Also important is the length of the bow when assembled, the tension of the string, the weight of the weapon and, last but not least, its color. True, representatives of the fair sex choose bows mainly based on its appearance.

It is most difficult to choose bows from the low and medium price range. Expensive weapons are usually made of high-quality and durable materials and have a reliable design. But novice archers have to choose from cheaper models that are more suitable for training.

Among such a variety of species, 3 can be distinguishedmain types of bows , which still exist: this is a straight traditional bow, a recurve bow and the pinnacle of archery evolution - a compound bow or, in other words, a “compound” (from the English Compound). What are the specifics of each type, what are the advantages and disadvantages, we will try to understand in this article.

First type - this is a straight bow, the progenitor of all other bows. It is impossible to determine even approximately when the first bow appeared, but it is reliably known that a straight bow at the beginning of its evolution was a wooden stick bent into an arc, the ends of which were pulled together with a bowstring. The first step towards improving the straight bow was made when bows began to be made not from one, but from two pieces of wood, connected in the middle at a certain slight angle and reinforced in certain places with linings of various materials.





The strength of combat from such a bow depended on its size and the strength of the central part. Despite the simplicity of its design, the straight bow is still used by archers from different countries to this day as the simplest and most classic option. Modern straight bows are, of course, different from their ancestors. Nowadays, solid plates are rarely used to make bows; most often, craftsmen glue bows from different layers and types of wood of different densities and sizes. A fine selection of natural and artificial materials, and an accurate calculation of the elasticity of the bow in its various parts ensures reliability and relatively high energy.

Often, a modern straight bow bears a highly artistic coloring and reflects a connection with a certain era. Today, straight bows are often a work of weaponry art and are purchased not for practical purposes, but as an expensive and fashionable fetish, the price of which often exceeds $1,000. It should be noted that straight bows are not subject to serious requirements for shooting accuracy, since most often shooting from a straight bow is carried out intuitively, without the use of sights. The main interest here is the high rate of fire and the special charm of primitive hunting. Speaking about the disadvantages of a straight bow, it is worth mentioning its large dimensions and the lack of the possibility of assembly and disassembly. Transporting a non-separable bow about one and a half meters long is not always convenient.

Second type of bow -This is a recurve bow. Being the most popular among professional archers, the recurve bow has long taken its place in the sport. What are its features? A recurve bow is characterized by the bend of its shoulders. This so-called recurve gives the bow limbs more energy at a smaller size. Compared to a straight bow, the limbs of a recurve bow, when the string is pulled, bend in the direction opposite to their natural bend, and during extension they make not one, but two movements, significantly speeding up the shooting process. At the same time, the speed of shoulder extension increases during the shot and more energy is transferred to the arrow. A modern recurve bow is elegant and lightweight, weighing just over one and a half kilograms, it can be non-separable, but most often consists of three parts: the limbs (upper and lower) and the central handle. This design is easily disassembled - the arms are attached to the handle and can be easily and quickly replaced. The handle of modern recurve bows is cast from light alloys or machined from wood, the limbs are made of composite, carbon or fiberglass.






The draw weight of modern recurve bows ranges from 14 to 30 kilograms. Shooting with a recurve bow has its advantages and disadvantages. The most important thing is that shooting with a recurve bow produces less vertical dispersion because the higher arrow speeds lead to more accurate shooting. Greater speed also gives an advantage in hunting, providing greater lethality. Therefore, recurve bows are very popular not only among athletes, but also among hunters.

And finally, we move on to the last type of bow, the pinnacle of archery evolution.Compound bow, compound bow – this is a product of high technology multiplied by cutting-edge materials. Compound is the most effective and most compact bow. The main feature of its design is a system of eccentric blocks located at the ends of the arms.






This system provides unprecedented power combined with comfort and small dimensions (the length of the loaded compound is usually from 70 to 100 cm). It’s really very difficult to describe how eccentrics work, and it’s not important; what’s important is that they perform two important functions: they make it easier to cock the bowstring and speed up its acceleration during the shot. The power of compound bows far exceeds that of both straight and recurve bows. The bowstring tension of modern blockers ranges from 25 to 40 kilograms on average. The speed of arrows fired from the best compounds can reach 100 meters per second or more! Possessing such frantic kinetic energy, the arrow is capable of accurately hitting a target at a very long distance (up to 100 meters). Thanks to their power, compactness and comfort, compound bows have gained recognition among hunters all over the world. There are practically no disadvantages to a block bow, except for problems with the selection of arrows - block bows, often possessing enormous power, are very demanding on arrows.






There are gradations (tables) of the ratio of bows and arrows, according to which you can correctly select the appropriate ammunition in weight, size and rigidity. For all bows, regardless of type, there are golden rules that should never be broken. Firstly, under no circumstances should you shoot empty - all the energy of the bow will go not into the arrow, but into the shoulders, and they can simply crack. Secondly, it is necessary to use protection for the left hand (grip) so as not to accidentally injure your hand with the bowstring during a shot. And thirdly, you cannot shoot at hard objects - when an arrow hits a hard surface, it either changes its geometry or simply collapses. (Special bow shields made of wood fiber boards are used for archery.) If you feel a spiritual need to own a bow, take your time, think about what purposes and how often you will use it. Archery requires special equipment and constant training, but the pleasure from this shooting compensates you for all moral and material costs. If you still decide to buy onions, contact specialized centers where you can not only choose and buy, but also receive valuable recommendations, and even become a member of the club. And never use the services of “basement gunsmiths”, my advice to you.






Let the poetry of archery fill your heart every morning.
Shoot to your health!

One of the most successful inventions in the field of weapons is the combat bow, which from ancient times to almost the present day remained an accurate, long-range and rapid-fire throwing weapon, which was used both for military operations and for hunting.

A well-known historical fact: the last time hunting bows were used in a major battle was in 1813. Then the united Bashkir and Kalmyk cavalry in the Battle of Leipzig covered the soldiers of the Napoleonic army with arrows. The French called these last archers in the history of wars “northern cupids.”

Before the advent of the combat bow, the outcome of the duel was decided by muscular strength, while this invention made it possible to destroy opponents from a great distance, and this, in turn, served as the impetus for a new stage in the development of human civilization. Not to mention the fact that the use of a combat bow as a hunting bow increased the amount of game caught.

Combat qualities of a hunting bow

The most important combat parameters of a hunting bow are arrow speed (depending on the tension force) and shot accuracy. In this case, the arrows must be the same, which will ensure identical shots.

The fighting qualities of a bow are influenced by the materials from which the weapon is made. Historically, flexible types of wood were used to form the frame of a hunting bow (later bows were made from several types, which increased the elastic properties of the shaft). Currently, this role has been taken over by complex composites that can withstand high bowstring tension.

A combat bow, both in ancient times and today, with sufficient archer skills, can be called a rapid-fire weapon. Even a crossbow, which at first glance is more advanced from a technical point of view, has a rate of fire that does not exceed four shots per minute. While in one minute a good archer can fire up to 10 aimed shots (according to legend, Russian archers could hold up to 9 consecutively fired arrows in the air).

According to experts, aiming when archery is more intuitive, rather than technical, since in flight the movement of the arrow is not rectilinear (it moves in a parabola). In addition, it is difficult to avoid such a phenomenon as the arrow spinning in the air, which also imposes its own adjustments. This is partially removed by the feathers, but the better the arrow is stabilized in the air flow, the higher the aerodynamic drag is (the shorter the distance it will fly).

Compound bow equipment

The compound bow is equipped with special shooting equipment, which makes the shooting process easier.

Additional equipment can be divided into two categories:

• Elements that must be equipped with a combat bow. These include release, sight, pip-site, shelf, stabilizer.
• Onion care products and tuning equipment.

Sight settings

The sight is mounted either on the front edge or on the right in the middle part of the handle. The easiest way to make adjustments is using a carriage (this mechanism moves vertically, the positions are fixed with a screw). A more modern calibration system is Smart Pin, thanks to which the bow is automatically adjusted literally with mathematical accuracy.

Sighting the bow

In order to zero the weapon, the shooter fires a series of shots (usually 3–6), after which he checks in which part of the target relative to the center they fall. The sight is adjusted accordingly, moving it in the direction where the arrows go. The procedure is repeated until the shots land in the center of the target.

Installation and configuration of a pip site

Peep site helps improve shooting accuracy. In order to determine its location, first mark a point on the string by eye, set a pip-site, and then pull the string. The pip site should be exactly in front of the shooting eye.

The most accurate aiming is ensured when the front sight coincides with the pip-site hole - this crosshair should be aimed at the target, and then fired. The pip site is attached between threads divided equally (this can be done using a special String Separator device).

After installing the pip-site, small windings are made above and below it on the bowstring for reliable fixation. When zeroing a bow, the peep sight can be moved up or down the string. After the bow is sighted, the pip-site is firmly fixed using windings made on the bowstring.

Shelf

The shelf is necessary so that the arrow does not touch the bow when fired. For compound bows, this element comes in several types:

• Falling shelves with a shock absorber, thanks to which deviations of the tail section are eliminated both during tension and during firing.
• Fuzzy shelves (for example, Whisker Power Shot Camo).
• Shelves with adjustable settings (adjustments are made using clamping or calibrating screws).

The shelf should be installed in such a way that the inserted arrow is strictly perpendicular to the bowstring.

Stabilizer

The stabilizer is designed to dampen vibrations during a shot. A compound-type hunting bow equipped with a stabilizer is significantly less dependent on those movements of the shooter’s hand that lead to the tilt of the bow during the release of the arrow.

Release

Releases are triggers that are used to improve accuracy. The device makes it easy to cock and hold the bowstring. In addition, the release provides the smoothest bow movement during draw and after release, which helps increase the number of hits.

Modernity: the end has not yet been set

Today, the history of the combat bow has not yet come to an end. Currently, shooting from it has become entertainment and sport. A modern combat bow is a powerful throwing weapon, with which professionals even go after wild boars.

Speaking about combat bows and hunting, I would like to mention that there are also models that are used on African Safaris, where the desired trophies are animals from the “Big Five” - leopard, lion, buffalo, rhinoceros and elephant. And the elephant is the most prestigious trophy that African shooters chase after. Most often, when hunting large African game, large-caliber weapons are used, but there is an exception - Howard Hill, who, with the help of a combat bow, acquired as many as three elephants in his collection of trophies. It is worth noting that he took four arrows for three animals.

Bow hunting in Russia: everything that is not prohibited is permitted

Currently, there is a legal ban on bow hunting throughout Russia. When traveling to near and far abroad, a hunting bow will need to be declared, so when purchasing it in a store, you should obtain a weapon certificate and a receipt. However, there are no prohibitions on hunting with this type of throwing weapon in private enclosures (it would be better to say in private hunting grounds), that is, even in Russia, archer-hunters can get their portion of adrenaline in full accordance with the letter of the law.